What is the common legal test used to assess restrictions on free movement or recognition in EU law, as illustrated by these cases?

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Proportionality is the standard used by EU courts to judge whether a restriction on free movement or recognition is justified. It requires that the measure pursue a legitimate objective and be suitable to achieve it, be necessary in the sense that there is no less restrictive means to reach the same end, and be proportionate in its effects by balancing the public interest against the individual's rights. In practice, when a member state imposes a rule that limits movement or the recognition of qualifications, the court asks whether the measure actually serves a real public interest and whether there isn’t a milder option that would achieve the same goal with less harm to fundamental freedoms. Other terms like sovereignty, territoriality, or harmonization describe different ideas or processes, not the evaluative test used to review these restrictions.